Resources for Teachers

Executive Functioning

Executive Functioning refers to the mental processes that control our thoughts, actions and emotions, particularly when we are presented with a novel situation. These include skills such as (1) effectively identifying and setting appropriate goals for a specific task, (2) planning and organizing an approach to the task, (3) initiating a plan of action, inhibiting distractions (being able to focus on the relevant aspects of the task and blocking out information in the environment that does not pertain to the task), (4) holding the goal and plan "on-line" while you perform the task, (5) trying a new approach (being flexible) when your first attempt does not succeed, and (6) evaluating your work to see if your approach was successful in achieving the goal. Also included within these skills is the ability to regulate emotions to effectively problem solve when presented with, and while attempting to approach and complete, a task.

Inhibition is the ability to resist impulses and to be able to stop behaviors at the appropriate time. In addition, adequate inhibition allows us to delay gratification while we work toward a goal. Individuals with weaknesses in inhibition often have trouble resisting impulses and difficulty considering consequences before acting (e.g., a failure to "look before leaping"). Furthermore, they may appear distractible and require more adult supervision than peers. Younger children with weak inhibition may have difficulty remembering to raise their hand before calling out in class or may demonstrate difficulty waiting for their turn in line. Students with inhibition weaknesses may start a task before listening to and understanding the instructions in their entirety; subsequently, they end up completing assignments inaccurately. Within the classroom setting, students with these types of difficulties respond best to a structured classroom setting in which expectations and rules are explicitly stated. They often require redirection to task; therefore, they typically do best when seated close to the teacher.

Shifting refers to our ability to move freely, or refocus our attention, from one situation, activity, or aspect of a problem to another as circumstances demand. Individuals who demonstrate problems shifting often have difficulty tolerating changes in their normal routine, do not transition smoothly from one activity to the next or one classroom to the next, and may exhibit specific repetitive behaviors that they are unable to stop. They may also tend to "carry over" a problem-solving approach or response style from a previous task that is no longer appropriate. Students with shifting issues do best in consistent, predictable educational environments; they often respond better to changes in their routine when they are provided warnings of upcoming transitions to allow them time to prepare (e.g., "John, in two minutes we are going to be putting our spelling books away and taking out our math homework."), and when visual organizers, such as pictures and calendar boards are used to indicate changes in the normal daily routine. Additionally, students with shifting difficulties are often more successful when they are given only one task to focus on at a time.

Difficulties with Emotional Control indicate weaknesses in our ability to control our emotional responses. Individuals with elevated scores on this scale may demonstrate sudden outbursts, frequent mood changes, and excessive periods of emotional upset. They may also react strongly to small provocations (e.g., may cry or become silly in a way that is out of proportion to the situation or have temper tantrums similar to younger children). Students sometimes respond positively to attempts to talk through situations that have preceded emotional outbursts and to discuss other behavior choices, but only once the student is relaxed and when done in a nonthreatening setting and in a nonthreatening manner. Psychotherapy can be an effective tool to assist students with Emotional Control weaknesses to identify emotionally upsetting situations, provide them with an appropriate vocabulary to discuss their feelings, and allow them to discuss and rehearse more appropriate emotional reactions.

Initiation reflects our ability to begin tasks and activities independently and effectively. This involves skills such as idea generation and problem-solving strategies. Notably, although parents and care givers sometimes misconstrue initiation difficulties as noncompliance or disinterest in a task, and, therefore may perceive these students as "unmotivated," they often have a desire to succeed, but simply have difficulty knowing how to begin. Parents and teachers describe children with weak initiation as needing several prompts before beginning homework or starting chores. Increased structure and routine can help eliminate or lessen initiation difficulties. Additionally, often students with initiation weaknesses respond well to "to do" lists or pictorial prompts which explicitly delineate the steps required to begin and complete an activity. Students also respond well to guidance and modeling through the first problem of a set for casework or homework.

Working Memory entails our capacity to hold information in mind in order to complete a task, encode information, generate goals/plans, or sequence steps to achieve goals. Individuals with working memory weaknesses generally have difficulty holding an appropriate amount of information in active memory for further processing. Weaknesses in working memory negatively impact the ability to remain attentive and focused over time, and to sustain performance. In light of this, students with working memory issues often have difficulty completing mental arithmetic and following complex instructions, and remembering more simple information, such as a phone number or remembering the items when sent on an errand. Students with working memory difficulties may also forget what they are working on while they work. These students benefit from learning to take notes or jot down keywords; orally presented information accompanied by an outline or study guide is also helpful. Many students with working memory and/or organizational weaknesses benefit from using calendar/task-management computer software, such as the ADD Planner (available through www.addplanner.com), Life Balance (available through www.llamagraphics.com) and Mind Manager (available through www.mindjet.com).

Planning/Organization refers to our ability to anticipate future events, set goals, and develop appropriate sequential steps ahead of time in order to carry out a task or activity. Planning/organization also reflects the ability to bring order to information and to appreciate main ideas or key concepts when learning or communicating information. Weaknesses in these areas have a negative impact on an individual=s approach to problem solving. Students with planning/organizational weaknesses sometimes attempt to begin tasks before gathering the necessary materials. Additionally, they are prone toward underestimating the time needed to complete tasks or misjudging the difficulty of a task, and are therefore, apt to wait until the last minute to begin long-term projects. They often benefit from having a "cookbook" of steps for common assignments or activities. Organizational weaknesses may result in a haphazard approach to tasks, and a tendency to miss the gist while remembering smaller details of information; students often have good ideas, but experience difficulty conveying them on tests or papers. Additionally, due to the organizational weaknesses, students with these issues often have more difficulty on open-ended tests because of the organization required to retrieve information with that format as opposed to multiple-choice tests which require less independent organization on the student's part. They may also need longer assignments broken down into shorter, more manageable components. Notably, they often require explicit instruction in outlining and note-taking.

Organization of Materials entails our ability to keep work, play, and storage spaces orderly (e.g., backpacks, lockers and desks). Students who exhibit these types of weaknesses struggle to keep their materials organized, and to find belongings when they are needed. Difficulties in this arena often impact how individuals function at school and at home because they do not have their belongings readily available for use. Often students who experience difficulties organizing their materials benefit from pragmatic instruction in organizational systems and from using organizational aids such as assignments books, calendars, charts, checklists of needed materials, etc.

Monitoringrefers to our ability to both check our work and maintain adequate interpersonal awareness. Students with monitoring weaknesses may have trouble assessing their performance during, or after finishing, a task to ensure accuracy or goal attainment. Therefore, they may tend to be less cautious in their approach to tasks, and often do not notice, or check for, errors. Students with monitoring issues often benefit from explicit instruction in editing and the practice of reviewing their work. Sometimes they tend to work quickly and, consequently benefit from rewards focused on accuracy as opposed to speed. They may also demonstrate difficulty accurately assessing the effect of their behavior on others. Social skills groups are often of benefit to provide students with weak self-monitoring awareness of the impact of their behaviors on others.

Gioia, G., Isquith, P., Guy, S., and Kenworthy, L. (2000). Behavior Rating of Executive Function Professional Manual. Odessa, Florida: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.

Isquith, P., Gioia, G., and PAR Staff (2002). BRIEF: Interpretive Report. Lutz, Florida: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.